Challenging The Legal Drinking Age - 1689 Words

Mackenzie Schultz Mrs. Hamilton AP English Language 25 July 2014 Challenging the Legal Drinking Age The Minimum Legal Drinking Age (MLDA) has been challenged since the passing of the National Minimum Drinking Age Act of 1984 that raised the drinking age to twenty-one in all fifty states (Ogilvie). Advocates for lowering the MLDA to eighteen years of age argue that this change will eliminate the thrill of breaking the law for young adults entering college and boost the national economy. Supporters continue to ask legislature what the true meaning of â€Å"adulthood† is if an eighteen year old can serve in the armed forces and vote, but cannot drink alcohol (Lowering the Legal Drinking Age: An Analysis of the Pros and Cons). Those against the alteration, a majority of Americans, argue that twenty-one year olds are medically mature and more responsible, therefore reducing the amount of fatal traffic accidents (Minimum Legal Drinking Age). Lowering the legal drinking age would eliminate the â€Å"forbidden fruit† theory, in which teenage rs are more compelled to engage in underage drinking because of the thrill that arises when breaking the law (Lowering the Legal Drinking Age: An Analysis of the Pros and Cons). Accompanying this thrill is also the fear of getting caught underage drinking. This fear is a reason for teens to hide that they have been drinking, pressuring them to drive home under the influence, and makes them fearful to seek medical attention when alcohol related injuriesShow MoreRelated Alcohol and Drinking - Challenging the Legal Drinking Age Essay1260 Words   |  6 PagesChallenging the Legal Drinking Age         Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Do the current laws involving the age at which adults can start drinking really make sense? There are many reasons why the government changed the legal drinking age to 21, but has this actually caused a decrease in the amount of alcohol consumed by persons between 18 and 21? Alcohol related crime and traffic accidents have gone down in recent years, but the source of this drop may not simply have to do with raising the drinking age, as the governmentRead MoreThe Debate Over A Proper Legal Drinking Age1243 Words   |  5 Pagesover a proper legal drinking age has been ongoing for decades. Some people believe twenty-one is the right age for legally consuming alcohol, while others believe twenty-one is too old. There are many supporters of an age limit of eighteen on alcohol consumption, but it has not been enough to sway Congress away from their set age of twenty-one. One major advocate for the age of twenty-one is the organization MADD, or â€Å"Mothers A gainst Drunk Driving†. This organization supports the age of twenty-oneRead MoreThe Problem Of Driving Under The United States1332 Words   |  6 Pagesthe nations most committed crime up to date, back in the 80’s people started supporting ways to fight drinking and driving, and were willing to give up some â€Å"freedom† to have stricter legal deeds. The people took this movement into a legislative sector. Somewhere between the 1981 and 1987 about 934 laws were passed by state legislatures having to do with the drinking and driving epidemic. Legal measures concentrate on preventing these drunk drivers by enforcing stricter laws and finding ways theyRead MoreTeen Alcoholism Is Driven By Example1150 Words   |  5 Pagesdriven by example. a teen sees someone else drinking, for whatever reason, and they imitate them to either save he or she’s pride and be â€Å"cool† or use is as e remedy to try to feel better about a situation they are in or to num b an unpleasant emotion they do not know how to deal with. affects the physical state of a young person, but also one’s current situations and relationships, and the outcome of he or she’s futures. â€Å"People who begin drinking before age 15 are four times more likely to developRead MoreEssay on Drunk Driving as a Social Issue1693 Words   |  7 Pagesfrequently committed violent crime, and in the 1980’s the public supported a wider range of non-criminal countermeasures, as well as stricter legal measures, to govern DUI’s. This movement against drunk driving was well reflected in the legislative arena. Between 1981 and 1987 some 934 new laws dealing with drunk driving were passed by state legislatures. Legal measures focus on deterring drunken drivers by providing stricter laws and punishment. Non-criminal countermeasures are concerned with reformRead MoreHow The Cage Can Be Treated For Adults And Adolescents Over The Age Of 16 ( Aertgeerts )874 Words   |  4 Pages This screening apparatus is simply administered and scored and can often times be committed to memory. The CAGE can be used in general medical populations in a primary care setting and be adm inistered at no cost to adults and adolescents over the age of 16 (Aertgeerts, et al., 2004). It has been distinguished that the CAGE takes less than one minute to manage and score. However, it does not screen for drug-related difficulties (Aertgeerts, et al., 2004). The CAGE has been used inRead MoreKeeping A Diary Doubles Diet Weight Loss980 Words   |  4 Pagesopposite sex appear more attractive may have been affected by a number of factors, which make the conclusion invalid. First, allocation of participants to either placebo or the alcohol-taking group was not randomly done. There are possibilities of age difference could have affected the results obtained: a scenario described as selection-maturation interaction. The control group could have realized they were being lied to ; thus, resulting in a resentful demoralization. The sample could also be awareRead MoreComing Of Age Essay857 Words   |  4 Pagesolder and turns into a young adult is often referred as â€Å"Coming Of Age.† Although, coming of age is an important twist in other people’s life where they tend to run into challenging courses into becoming better adults. This essay will talk more about what a person have to go through while they are coming of age which include challenges, choices and responsibility. First, going through challenges. When a person is coming of age, they’ll have to face challenges once they process into an adult. ChallengesRead MorePros And Cons Of Lowering The Drinking Age1822 Words   |  8 PagesAlthough not always the case, the legal drinking age in the United States is 21 years old. However, the minimum legal drinking age drastically varies across the rest of the globe, with some countries allowing legal alcohol consumption before individuals have even turned 18 years old. Since the legal drinking age was changed to 21 years, it has been a controversial issue in the United States. For decades, there have been debates on the pros and cons of lowering the legal age. In fact, there have even beenRead MoreThe Diagnosis Of Addiction Clients1576 Words   |  7 PagesGolden Age: 38 Date of Examination: August 18, 2015 Ethnicity: Caucasian Gender: Male Presenting Problem: Mr. Thomas is a married 38 year old Caucasian suffering from Alcohol Use Disorder. Although married, he and his wife constantly argues about his drinking, and she has even stopped sleeping with him when he drinks. He was recently arrested for drinking and driving (DUI/DWI), and was advised by his attorney to quit drinking and

The Effects Of Alcohol On Alcohol Abuse - 942 Words

Everyday around the world people fail to realize the effects alcohol abuse can have on themselves as well as their loved ones. Alcohol can be highly addictive, and plague an individual s life. Individuals who suffer from alcohol abuse go through various withdrawal symptoms when attempting to cease from drinking alcohol. There are various methods alcohol abusers to quit using alcohol. For adults who abuse alcohol, achieving abstinence can be an arduous process that can be overcome with the perseverance of the individual as well as the support of family and peers. Before one can begin the process of remaining abstinent from alcohol, the individual must first accept that there is problem stemming from drinking alcohol. Admitting that there is something wrong about consuming too much alcohol, enables the individual to take action. Although the alcohol abusers peers may highlight the problem to the user as well, he or she are more likely to commit to quitting if the problem is acknowledge d by the individual. First, the alcohol users assesses his or her situation regarding alcohol abuse. Next, the individual will need to take steps to ensure his or her peers are aware and supportive of the situation. If the users peers all abuse alcohol it may be difficult or embarrassing to acknowledge your plan to change. Now that the alcohol user has acknowledged the substance abuse problem, it’s time for the alcohol user to speak with his or her physician about remaining abstinent fromShow MoreRelatedThe Effects Of Alcohol Abuse On Alcohol882 Words   |  4 Pagesme is alcohol. I often notice underage adolescents drinking and I also distinguish how they become different people when intoxicated by alcohol. They begin to walk funny and they tend to slur their words, making it hard to comprehend anything they are saying. I have watched family members who were so inebriated that they could not even spell their own name or even pinpoint who they were. The questions I always as k myself when I see these drunk college kids is â€Å"Do these kids know the effects of alcoholismRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol On Alcohol Abuse Essay1115 Words   |  5 Pages Dependance on alcohol has been around ever since its creation and records of writing existed. From Biblical commandments clearly restricting the drink due to its destructive and addictive nature to the celebrities on tv screens and music devices glorifying the substance, alcohol has always been part of various cultures. Being the number one drug problem in the U.S with over 12 million people reportedly being alcoholics and of those 7 million being binge drinkers between the ages 12-20, it comesRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol On Alcohol Abuse941 Words   |  4 PagesEvery day around the world, people fail to realize the effects alcohol abuse can have on themselves as well as their loved ones. Alcohol is highly addictive, and can plague an individual s life. People who suffer from alcohol abuse go through various withdrawal symptoms when attempting to cease from drinking alcohol. There are various methods alcohol abusers to quit using alcohol. For adults who abuse alcohol, achieving abstinence can be an arduous process that can be overcome with the perseveranceRead MoreThe Effects of Alcohol Abuse1472 Words   |  6 Pagesdoing things they should not. Alcohol is one of those things. Alcohol is extremely easy to get ahold of. It can be attained from anywhere; there are bars and liquor stores on every corner. One can get alcohol in grocery stores, gas stations, people can even brew it themselves if they know how. Alcohol that is commonly abused comes in a large variety ranging from weaker alcohols like wine and beer to stronger substances like tequila and vodka. When one abuses alcohol it taints the minds of even theRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol On Alcohol Abuse1965 Words   |  8 PagesAs of January 2015 alcohol related deaths were represented as accountable for approximately 6% o f deaths worldwide. That is 3.3 million deaths from alcohol related car accidents to alcohol poisoning. The consumption of alcohol can be tied with being a factor in a variety of diseases, disabilities, tragedies, and crimes. An estimate of over 76 million people suffer from alcohol dependence and abuse. Consumption of alcohol can become a serious threat to personal and public health when an individualRead MoreEffects of Alcohol Abuse1616 Words   |  7 PagesAlcohol abuse The term alcohol abuse in this case encompasses harmful use of alcohol and misuse of alcohol resulting from dependence. The experience of alcohol abuse can have far-reaching consequences on the family, the community, and the nation. According to NIDA, drug and substance abuse costs the nation $600 Billion every year. This cost factors in crime, healthcare, and lost productivity. Alcohol accounts for 40% of this cost. It is, therefore, necessary, within the context of the family, toRead MoreEffects Of Alcohol And Drug Abuse919 Words   |  4 PagesImpact of Alcohol and Drug Abuse There may be some things that you don t know about the impact of drug and alcohol abuse on friends and family and how your friends and family may react to your choices. Having knowledge about alcohol and drug abuse, preventing toxic relationship with friends, and being informed about the consequences of drug and alcohol abuse can prevent the harmful use or consumption of drugs and alcohol. First and foremost, having knowledgeable information on the impact drugsRead MoreThe Effects Of Alcohol Abuse On The Family1518 Words   |  7 Pagesimpact this is having on her relationship with my mom and family. To say my step mom is an addict would truly be an understatement because of her need and crave for it each day. Unfortunately, alcohol abuse is not often taken serious and many people have a tough time understanding the effects of alcohol abuse on the entire family as opposed to just the abuser. Since Tina was a young age, she knew she was a lesbian and made it a point to hide this from her family and friends. She began to create aRead MoreEffects Of Alcohol Abuse On Children1698 Words   |  7 PagesAbstract The influence of alcohol advertising has been around for many years. People don’t understand the damage that alcohol abuse can cause and will cause if someone decides to start drinking on a regular. Often time’s people begin to drink because they are stressed and becomes a habit that one can no longer over come. Once down that road it is hard to recover, but if you are willing to recover there is always clinics and family that will help. Alcohol abuse and enslavement are enormous currentRead MoreEffects Of Alcohol Abuse On The Body991 Words   |  4 PagesEffects of alcohol abuse Alcohol abuse has become a growing problem in the U.S. today. Even though alcohol prevents certain illness and extends life, alcohol abuse needs to be controlled before it gets to out of hand because it has many negative effects on a person’s body, it can cause harm to children mentally and physically, and not only affects the person drinking it but the people around them. Alcohol abuse has many negative effects on the body. One way it affects the body is through the heart

What We Talk When We Talk About Love free essay sample

If Mel believes his view of the elderly couple is true love then who is this author to say that it’s an â€Å"emotional immaturity? † Especially, when Campbell also states that â€Å"the reader can rightly infer that nothing he has ever felt as love could be favorably compared with what he found in the elderly man who was depressed because he couldn’t see his wife. † It makes no sense for him to say Mel is emotionally immature, then turn it around and say that the reader can rightly infer that all of the loves Mel speaks about don’t even compare to the elderly couple’s love. I believe that out of all the loves Mel talks about, that is the one that should make him seem less immature emotionally. If he wanted to bring up the immaturity of Mel then he should’ve mentioned how he wanted to kill his ex- wife with bees or just his alcoholism in general. I think Campbell overlooks the fact that no one can express what true love is and anyone’s idea on what it is, is just as good as any other. Meyer, Adam. The Middle Years: What We Talk About When We Talk About Love, Raymond Carver. 1995. 86-87. Rpt. n Short Stories for Students, Vol. 12. Literature Resource Center. Web. 19 Mar. 2012. Adam Meyer presents an essay that describes Raymond Carver’s writing style and how â€Å"What We Talk When We Talk About Love† is Carver’s most exaggerated form of minimalism. Although Carver eventually reacted against this extremely pared-down-style, â€Å"this story continues to embody minimalism at its most distinctive† Meyer says. He describes how language is used so sparingly and the plots so minimal that the story at first seems to â€Å"have no life in them. Meyer goes on to tell how the characters frequently have no names or just first names and are so briefly described that they appear to have no physical pre sence, and certainly have no distinct identity. He discusses how Carver told an interviewer that the texts in â€Å"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love† were so pared down,† and everything he thought he could live without he just got rid of, or â€Å"cut out. †. Meyer tells how Carver was urged by his editor to take out anything he could take out, as doing so will make the work stronger. This is based in Ernest Hemmingway’s â€Å"theory of omission. † â€Å"Pare, pare, and pare some more† his editor told him. Meyer then moves into the summary of the story stating that â€Å"Although its plot is rather thin, several of the obsessions that have run through the storythe difficulty of sustaining relationships, the effect of alcoholism as a contributing factor to that difficulty, the problem of communicationare given their most extensive treatment. † He tells of how the old couple in the hospital could symbolize for Mel what a sign of a stable and long-lasting love is. Meyer also discusses his houghts on Mel and Terri’s relationship, bringing up how they start to argue more openly as the night unfolds, like when Terri kids Mel about sounding drunk, and Mel quietly responds, â€Å"Just shut up for once in your life†¦. Will you do me a favor and do that for a minute? † He views Mel and Terri’s relationship as â€Å"disi ntegrating,† and their marriage at a stale state, while viewing Nick and Laura as â€Å"still glowing newlyweds† who are in the â€Å"first throes of love. † Meyer ends his essay with, ‘the relative articulateness of these characters by no means enables them to reach a satisfactory conclusion. The only resolution reached in this version of the symposium is that we really have no idea â€Å"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love†. ’ This is by far the best critical essay I have read On Carver’s â€Å"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love. † Meyer takes into account what Carver was going through personally and what he was urged to do by his associates to make this story work. Instead of arguing that nothing happens like previous essays he understands that a lot is being said even though it has a minimal plot. I like how he gives you actual research of Carver and shows that he analyzed the author’s background and writing style before jumping into conclusions of what the story is about. I also like how he sees the different obsessions the story offers such as the difficulty of sustaining relationships, the effect of alcoholism as a contributing factor to that difficulty, and the problem of communication in the story. His analysis of the characters are fair and not over analyzed and carefully comes to the proper conclusion of the story when he takes Mel’s question of â€Å"What do any of us really know about love? † and answers it with â€Å"not very much. Brent, Liz. Critical Essay on What We Talk About When We Talk About Love. Short Stories for Students. Vol. 12. 2001. Literature Resource Center. Web. 19 Mar. 2012. Liz Brent takes Carver’s â€Å"What We Talk About When We Talk About Love† and dissects the character of Mel to a point where it seems he li ke is heartbroken man that protects himself from being hurt again. She claims that Carver demonstrates that the surface level of the conversation of the four characters is only the tip of the emotional iceberg. Brent talks about the figurative language used by Mel and how it’s expressive of his own feelings about the subject of love. The author uses the image of the human â€Å"heart† and how it takes on figurative connotations in the story as it is referred to both in the mechanical sense, of the functioning of the human heart, and the symbolic sense, as the organ of love. She believes that the opening sentences of the story, in retrospect, play on the irony of Mel, a heart doctor, claiming to be an expert on matters of the heart. Brent also gives examples of another central element of figurative speech in this story revolving around Mel mentioning, if he could come back in a different life, he would want to be a knight. She says that Mels fascination with the armor worn by a knight is perhaps a heavy-handed image of Mels need to protect himself emotionally against the ravages of love. † She continues on stating that Mel explains You were pretty safe wearing all that armor. She claims the image is extended to suggest that Mels protective emotional armor has failed to protect him against the dangers of new love: It was all right being a knight until gunpowder and muskets and pistols came along. Brent then explains how Mel goes on to expand upon his fascination with the protective armor of knights: what I liked about knights, besides their ladies, was that they had that suit of armor, you know, and they couldnt get hurt very easy. From that, Brent came to the conclusion that Mel is expressing a desire to be protected from getting hurt at an emotional level in his relationships with others. As she stays on the same theme she discusses how Mel later uses the imagery of a beekeepers protective clothing to express a similar desire for some form of protection from love. She claims that the armor imagery is echoed here in his description of the beekeepers protective clothing: â€Å"Sometimes I think Ill go there dressed like a beekeeper. You know, that hat thats like a helmet with the plate that comes down over your face, the big gloves, and the padded coat? Ill knock on the door and let loose a hive of bees in the house. † She concludes her essay by saying, â€Å"Although Carver is considered a minimalist writer, whose stories take on meaning more in what is not said than what is said, his use of figurative language gives depth to his stories by expanding upon their central themes. Although I believe this another example of over analyzing the character of Mel as well, it seems to be a good theory on whom Mel is. I never looked at those words and thought he was protecting his heart in some way, but after reading this, I believe maybe he was. Brent does a good job analyzing the words spoken and seems to carefully craft a conclusion on why he i s saying those things. I don’t agree with all of her thoughts on the figurative language topic, but to dissect words and put another meaning to them is something I wouldn’t do but something I still enjoyed reading. I also like that she’s not critical of Carver like other authors, and simply suggests what she thinks are some hidden messages through Mel’s words. I can see Carver looking at this and laughing but I can also see him walking away saying, I did mean it to come out that way, which shows a lot of thought and effort went into her analysis of Mel. Overall Brent does a wonderful job of looking deep into the meanings of Mel’s words and shows that words can be twisted into whatever meaning you want them to have and make the story that much better.

Schoolgirl was accepted to Yale University because of her love to pizza

Schoolgirl was accepted to Yale University because of her love to pizza How to enter one of the most popular university in the world? Decent school references and excellent certificate go without saying. Although, one can draw the attention of Admission Committee. As we have seen, some students are good at it. American high school student Carolina Williams wrote an essay about her love to Papa John’s pizza and thanks to these 196 words, she unexpectedly became a spotlight. Actually, it was the first thing that came to her mind. Admission Committee of Yale University was very pleased of the teen’s composition and accepted her in college. By the way, Yale University is considered to be one of the best educational institutions. Its graduates were Hilary Clinton, Meryl Streep, and other famous people. I laughed so hard on your pizza essay. I kept thinking that you are the kind of person that I would love to be best friends with, a member of Admission Committee wrote Carolina. For admission to Yale University, a student should write an essay about the thing you really like. Carolina Williams decided to tell about her love to pizza. She orders it every week. The girl wrote in her composition, Accepting those warm cardboard boxes at my front door is second nature to me, but I will always love ordering pizza because of the way eight slices of something so ordinary are able to evoke feelings of independence, consolidation, and joy, Williams and her friends thought it might be rather nice to tell Papa Johns about this funny story. So Carolina wrote on Twitter, â€Å"I just want @PapaJohns to know that I wrote a college essay about how much I love to order their pizza and it got me into Yale†. After that, the pizza restaurant responded her and asked to send the full text of the essay. Papa Johns offered them lots of free pizzas and training in the company. She published the essay’s text and the response from Yale University in her twitter. Admission Committee said that they were roaring with laughter because of William’s essay. The girl was boasted of her extraordinary approach choosing such topic and offered her to study in the college. Williams is going to refuse this proposal because she is planning to apply for Obern University in order not to go far from her home. Also, it is worth noting that the girl performs well at school and is included in 10 best students of her school in all the subjects. Also, Carolina visits a church, works in a library as a volunteer and is a member of several non-governmental organizations. In the future, she is going to manage a business and work in economics.

Making it Big Case Study

Making it Big Case Study Introduction Building strategies is necessary for efficient running of any business Company. The kind of strategy built and implemented determines the level of progress within the Company. Strategies are usually built based on various conditions which may include; the current status of the Company, the Company’s policies and ability to focus ahead based on competitive moves and business approaches.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Making it Big Case Study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The company’s management must have action plan that enables them have competitive advantage over other related companies within the industry. This case study focuses on the strategies that Make It Big Company took for the purposes of increasing the Company’s market share and stabilizing its financial base. The effects and implications of the chosen strategies are explored based on business and marketing principles (Winn 185-196). Identification of key elements of MIB strategy One of Make It Big (MIB) Company’s strategies used to bring back customers is the use of mail order roster and increased use of internet where the Company’s product portfolio is posted. The company also embarked on printing more catalogs and went into the business of exchanging mailing lists with other companies. All the strategies applied by MIB focused on growth of the business, attracting more buyers, achieving specific performance targets and also for the purposes of effective competition within the market. Strategies used in the initial stages were based on independent decision making. This was done by MIB CEO. She never made any consultations because she believed in her own leadership capabilities (Winn 185). MIB focused on operations-driven activities which enabled achievement of its goal. These activities included means through which quality of products could be improved, reinforcement of customer service relations and the processes undertaken on resource management (Winn 185-190). The selection of the management team in MIB was basically based on experience and educational background (Winn 194). Identification of the strategies MIB uses Make It Big Company used the idea of partnership, mail order concept and catalogs in accomplishing its goals. The Company’s targets were the fat and oversize women within the society. This shifted their focus to making clothes that could serve the interests of fat people besides making them attractive and more acceptable within the community. The company’s strategy included some political aspect that fought against discrimination based on people’s body size. The strategy focused on improving the self-esteem of the oversize women by providing them with comfortable type of clothing.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The company also focused on using skilled employees, for example the CEO employed one of her friend who was very experienced and skilled in sewing. The company utilized the abilities of expert seamstresses through whom they hired more other employees to work for the company. These services offered by other workers provided sufficient work force to the benefit of MIB (Winn 189-190). Make It Big (MIB) Company embarked on manufacturing clothing on order, this was based on different seasonal colors which provided customers with variety of choices. On the other hand the building financial base for MIB depended on personal savings and credit obtained from banks; this enhanced its financial capability. MIB had the initiative of using the mail order in expanding the company’s business operations. The advertising strategy used at the start of operations was through the word of mouth and posters which were placed along the road, this ensured the expansion of the mailing list, and hence led to improvement of sales (Winn 190). Frequent attendances on trade shows by the CEO gave the company ability to up-date its manufacturing services and locate new product designs. This made it possible for MIB to obtain materials from different sources based on consumer desires and needs. The Company targeted main categories of wear starting from career, sports, casual amongst other cloth’s categories. MIB sold most of its merchandise through catalogues, sales from website was majorly through the same loyal customers (Winn 192-193). MIB up-graded it’s advertising strategy to incorporate radio and newspaper. They also targeted house parties which helped in improving the company’s sales. In order to counter the high rise of independent retailers within the industry, they resorted into consolidation and strict branding of their products; this idea gave clear identification as well as distinction from other products within the market. Other than branding they focused on regulating prices of their goods and improving the nature of service delivery they rendered to consumers. However, other competitors had invested in the new technology of using computers to give and keep detailed information on customers which assisted in easy mailing since consumers were contacted directly (Winn 192). Personal information on loyal customers was easily accessed and this also created channels on how to reach bulky customers. Incorporation of team building and communication programs were good strategies that helped employees within the company to work as a team, hence driving towards common goal. The good relation amongst employees and between MIB and other business partners favored the Company in terms of cash flow. This contributed towards easy marshalling of resources and the installation of efficient communication and operating system that made it easier for the management to carry out their activities with lots of ease (Winn 192).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Making it Big Case Study specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Evidences that the strategy is or is not working The strategy of beefing up information at the website did not materialize since it only attracted people who never turned up to purchase any of the advertised items (Winn 185). The Company’s CEO commented that she couldn’t manage improving the Company’s performance on her own despite many trials. She needed the help of other advisors from the Company ranks. The CEO realized the necessity of bringing on board fresh blood that could help in making the Company’s prime decisions. MIB proves not to be bottom- line performer since the CEO considered strategy management as secondary to other issues. These strategies at some point were realized not to be in agreement with the Company’s vision (Winn 193). Make It Big had difficulty in predicting what would sell at spec ific season of the year (Winn 190). The issue of using partnership failed to work at the start since both the partners had conflicting interests and goals, this made Cynthia to buy back her partners shares to allow her be in full control of MIB businesses (Winn 191). The apparel industry experienced great competition from various manufacturers who were interested in making super size range of clothing, most of the Companies operated as joint ventures. This gave a big challenge to MIB since it operated solely under one manager and later recruited other managers who were required to focus only on production processes. The other duties of financial management and overall sales were under the supervision of the CEO. The CEO became ignorant of her main duty of making and creating strategic plans for the benefit of MIB Company (Winn 193). However, her abilities on financial management assisted the company to carefully monitor cash-flow hence keeping the company’s resources in good check. MIB strategy of recruiting committed and qualified employees ensured efficient implementation of strategies, good management and profitable progress within the company. The managers had the ability of undertaking multiple tasks and responsibilities which at times prove costly on production process due to fatigue. The other contribution of the new management was the up-dating of the computer network which made it easier to operate with customers. The accounting system also realized improvement through the computer system hence made it easier for the management of resources (Winn 195-196).Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Other evidence of strategy not working was the kind of indecision the CEO found herself in. She placed goal achievement as one of the Company’s priority but lacked means on how to achieve the targeted goals. The CEO feared investing in new ventures due to lack of enough skilled manpower that could compete favorably within the markets competitive environment. There was need for recruiting experienced management team that could help in managing risks within the Company. MIB experienced low sales and departure of top managers like the general manager. This was because MIB had difficulty in maintaining and retaining right employees due to poor relations from the CEO, she lacked enough qualifications that could enhance her confidence in such a high position. The CEO reached a point where she was unable to predict the requirements for the Company after expansion. Inability to direct organizational change was very evident; the Company failed to identify general manager with enough e xperience and qualifications who could drive changes through appropriate actions in various sectors like in mailing services (Winn 195). This is because MIB operated on the same principles the Company used when it was starting, the same operating principles could not work any further. For MIB to realize growth and expansion it required adept leadership and different skill from that set when it was starting. This included recruiting new CEO and overhauling the whole management team (Winn 196). Conclusion The management team should have the capability of matching the organization’s structure to its strategies which allows for efficient execution of the Company’s capabilities and competencies. It is necessary for a firm to have a strong resource base which helps in enhancing its capabilities to deliver quality services to consumers as well as competing favorably within the market. Winn, Joan. Making It Big case study. Entrepreneurship theory and practice. CA: Baylor Univ ersity Press, 2004. 185-196. Print.

How To Make Violet or Purple Fire

How To Make Violet or Purple Fire Violet flames are very easy to make. All you do is sprinkle salt substitute on your fire. Salt substitute contains potassium chloride and potassium bitartrate. If you are familiar with the emission spectra from flame tests, youll recognize that potassium salts burn violet or purple. The color seems more of a blue-violet, but you can get a more reddish purple if you mix a little strontium from the red fire tutorial in with the salt substitute. Keep in mind that violet is not one of the colors your eyes see really well. The subtle glow of these flames can be completely overwhelmed by the colors from trace impurities. This means two things: Use as pure a fuel as you can. I used Heet fuel treatment, which is methanol. If you sprinkle the salt substitute on your wood-burning campfire, the flames will change color, but the color wont necessarily be violet.Use salt substitute and not lite salt. Lite salt is a mixture of normal table salt (sodium chloride) with potassium salts. The yellow from the sodium will overpower the violet from the potassium. Watch a video of this project.

Reading reflection 9 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Reading reflection 9 - Essay Example On most occasions, people sentenced to death normally use this term as a ground of defense. Proving their innocence through this ground of defense is an efficient and effective manner of receiving their freedom. Reflecting further on this notion of wrongful convictions, I came to realize that the best and most efficient method of exonerating these people is through the use of DNA evidence. My interest in the reading made me to research on a case that involved a person who was wrongfully convicted, and thereafter released. I settled on Joe D Ambrosio, who was released on March 2010. Ambrosio was convicted in 1989 for the murder of Klann, but during his trial, prosecutors failed to produce evidence that was exonerating him, despite such evidence being in their possession (Free and Ruesink, 2012). Ambrosio was released by judge Synerberg for wrongful conviction. From this case, I learnt that prosecutors and law enforcement officers can make an individual to suffer imprisonment from crimes they did not commit, especially if such individuals are not efficient in their work. This article introduces us to the element of racialism in the administration of justice in United States of America. For instance, the article denotes that the Governor of Illinois, George Ryan, conceded that the death penalty system in United States of America was full of error because it discriminated upon the person who deserved to die and who deserved to live, by analyzing the color of their skin. Because of this, he decided to forgive the death row convicts in his state. Reflecting on this, I denote that though it was wise of him to carry out such kind of an action, it could have been good if he enacted policies and laws that would abolish death penalty in the State. This is because he was in the position of power. In my own opinion, the best way to reduce inequitable administration of justice in regard to the death penalty, it is important for states all over America to abolish the

Chinese and Japanese societies Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Chinese and Japanese societies - Essay Example Furthermore, we face typical prewar circumstances, wherein the imperialist powers jockey for position prior to slugging it out. As the jockeying rise, strange efforts will be necessary to avert a third world war. Moreover, perhaps only rebellion in one bloc or another can change the largely balance in time to prevent harmony between these two countries (Doyle, 2002, pp. 480-1).. According to the expert analysis the old China was a storage bin case. No doubt, one require only look at the flaw of China when tackle by Japanese assault: a few 450 million people rich in capital, rich in history, rich in cultural custom, yet nonetheless so mired in semi feudal, semi majestic stagnation that they could not district off the assault of a nation of 70 million. Beyond the shadow had there been no rebellion in progress, had there been no socialist Party, no United Front, no Eighth Route Army public meeting the people for confrontation, China was enriched with cultural beliefs of independence and ceased, for an imprecise period, to function as a nation. Now take a look upon the cultural values of Japan before World War I, No doubt, Sino-Japanese dealings were at low regardless of signs of revival. A number of people claim that cultural miscommunication among the two countries and two peoples are causative to the failing relations. Moreover they had great respect for cultural festivals and religious events. Class System Lets take a look upon class system in both strongest powers in Asia, the original beginning of the Republic centered on the three principles of the People: patriotism, democratic system, and People's Livelihood. As the century wind down toward a surprise conclusion that leaves free enterprise in charge both East and West, China built-in, experts observe no cause to alter my mind. Furthermore, the communalist world outlook include the alternative that Marxists could fail, in practice, to create in this century better societies free of class utilization stable, creative, and above all democratic truly self-governing, not simply control capitalist power networks by means of self-governing trimmings. But obviously we have so far observer merely one early round in a long-drawn-out global disturbance. As long as private enterprise dominates the world. Beyond the shadow, once socialism takes root as a feasible option a crucial guide to social regeneration Now take a look upon the class system of Japan, in modern times the basis of war on a world level has always been imperialist competition. Now that the collective bloc has disintegrated, conflicts between competing imperialist powers will unavoidably come to the fore and control global relations, as they have so frequently in the history. Moreover, we face a classic prewar state of affairs, wherein the imperialist powers jockey for place prior to slugging it out in Japanese society's class system. Gender Perceptions No doubt, Japan have called "democratic," had as its conjugal objective the disintegrate of the feudal system, particularly the agrarian system, and as its global objective the release of China from imperialist interference and control. The ant feudal constituent

The Evolution of Federalism Essay Example for Free

The Evolution of Federalism Essay Federalism is the current type of government used in the United States. In this system of government, there is distribution of power between central authority or the national government and the local political units. The framers of the United States Constitution decided that a federalist government would work best for the country because it can lead to a stronger and unified government thereby giving focus to the needs of each state and the country as a whole. Every type of government is unique in its own way and each has its own pros and cons. The evolution of a federal type of government has both positive and negative effects. Aside from unifying the government, the local government’s independence results in efficiency due to fast decision-making. The federal system provides convenience to the citizens because they can compare the structure in different states thereby giving them the ultimate decision where they want to live in. A federalist government has a greater chance for progress because their system allows them to strategize and formulate different approaches in their economic and political framework. The existence of a federal government avoids and reduces the risk of authoritarianism (Walker, 2001). There are also several disadvantages of the federal government such as the incoherence or overlapping of several policies among different states and the tendency for unhealthy competition among states due to the difference of governance. For its continued existence, the government needs to formulate a system regardless of the form. No type of government guarantees the success of a nation. At present, different structures of government are being used all throughout the world and by far, the only key to a progressive and successful society lies not in the government itself but the people behind it. References Walker, G. (2001). Ten advantages of a federal constitution. On Line Opinion. Retrieved April 20, 2009 from http://www.onlineopinion.com.au/view.asp?article=1265page=3

Comparing Low Calorie, Low Fat, and Low Carbohydrate Diets Essay

Comparing Low Calorie, Low Fat, and Low Carbohydrate Diets Comparing low calorie diets, low fat diets, and low carbohydrate diets involves looking at how they work, what problems they have, and what foods are allowed, restricted, or prohibited on each diet. Therefore, it is essential to keep in mind the recommended daily allowances of each nutritional component of a diet at non-weight loss conditions. The major nutritional components of a diet are grouped into the major categories fat, carbohydrates and sugars, and proteins. There are also vitamins and minerals that are not a group of their own but are associated with each category – there are different vitamins in each category. The body uses each of these components for a different purpose and needs each in a different amount. One of these needs is energy – energy to keep the heart beating, the brain working and all the various mundane aspects of day-to-day living. Any excess energy is stored as body fat. If it ever needs energy, the body can dip into these reserves – burn fat. Schematically, a healthy, non-weight loss conditions diet can be represented by a pie chart with each nutritional component as one proportionally sized piece of the pie. Each different diet – low calorie, low fat, and low carbohydrate – changes the pie in a different way. On a low calorie diet, the entire pie is shrunk. The proportions of fat, carbohydrates and sugars, and protein are kept the same but fewer calories are consumed. This way, the body does not receive all the energy it needs from the food that it intakes and is thereby forced to dip into its energy reserves – i.e. body fat. But, in cutting down on calories, the amount of other essential nutritional components, such as vita... ...it into cheese. Sweets are completely forbidden. Meat is also allowed, hence the nickname ‘the meat and cheese diet.’ And, most vegetables are allowed and must be consumed to remain healthy. Low calorie, low fat and low carbohydrate diets all aim at reducing the amount of energy obtained from food so that the body is forced to burn fat for fuel. Each has a different proscribed menu. Low calorie diets focus on restricting portion size and overall amount of food eaten while low fat and low carbohydrate diets eliminate fats and carbohydrates respectively. Because each type of food contains a unique set of vitamins, people who practice each of these different diets must be mindful of which vitamins their diet is not providing in adequate amounts and compensate accordingly. Works Cited: http://www.weightlossforgood.co.uk/fat_information.htm

Interpersonal Conflict in Movies (American Beauty) Essay

Interpersonal conflict is â€Å"a struggle that occurs when two people cannot agree on a way to meet their needs† (Beebe, Beebe & Redmond, 1999, p.248). Interpersonal conflict can be of love, spirituality, morals etc. In American Beauty (film), interpersonal conflicts are shown as reason to destroy household. Household that appears to be perfect and imaginary from outside, are moth-eaten from inside, owing its failure to interpersonal conflict within the family. Many characters versus character conflicts are shown like interpersonal conflict between Lester Burnham and her daughter Jane, between Angela and Jane, between Col Fitts and his son Ricky, unhappy marriages of Lester and Carolyn and that of Col Fitts and his silent wife, but the conflict between Lester Burnham and his wife Carolyn is of much importance as it was not handled properly.. Three types of conflict are shown in the Lester’s and Carolyn’s interpersonal conflict, namely pseudo conflict, simple con flict and ego conflict. Lester Burnham and his wife Carolyn are living in a pseudo environment where both hate the life in which they are living since the start of the movie. This conflict somehow seemed to last throughout the movie and was not handled properly regardless of the efforts made by the couple. The conflict between them was attributed to the egocentric attitude of Lester and Carolyn towards each other, seeds of lust and adultery, materialistic and pessimistic approach of Carolyn towards happiness and Lester’s lost of interest in the family. The couple should have encouraged healthy discussions in the family and should have avoided the show-off of fake life .As Scott suggests that conflict are more than just debates, or negotiations, in that they are an escalation of everyday competition and discussion into an arena of hostile or emotion provoking encounters that strain personal or interpersonal tranquility or both. During this conflict, they did not even realize how far it was taking them from their daughter Jane. Giving proper time to their daughter and family would have stopped the conflict from escalating. Seeds of adultery, cheating and lust took them away from each other. Carolyn viewed Lester as a loser. Carolyn view materialistic objects as success and Lester sees happiness as success. Lester’s normal life with a monotonous dead-end job and Carolyn’s hard luck in real estate because of pseudo-competition buddy â€Å"The King† Kane was depressing for the couple. The conflict within the couple multiplies day by day. Their physical distances added fuel to fire. Both are sexually frustrated and this was evident in routine fights even fight over song played during the dinner. However, intimate relation with each other would have protected Lester from his interest in Angela and that of Carolyn’s in Kane. Given that couple had focused on the inner beauty of life before than their focus on materialistic beauty (Lester finally realized), the interpersonal conflict would have resolved.

Street Light

INDEX |S.NO |TITLE |PAGE NO | |1 |Introduction |1 | |2 |Solar Energy |4 | |3 |Photovoltaics |24 | |4 |Solar Cell |28 | |5 |Solar Roadway |51 | |6 |Component description |55 | |7 |Working of Project |82 | |8 |Conclusion |86 | |9 |Images |91 | |10 |Bibliography |93 | INTRODUCTION INTRODUCTION: Solar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies.Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity and solar architecture, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into electricity, either directly using photovoltaic (PV), or indirectly using concentrated solar power (CSP). Concentrated solar power systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. Photovoltaics convert light into electric cur rent using the photoelectric effect. A Street light, lamppost, street lamp, light standard, or lamp standard is a raised source of light on the edge of a road or walkway, which is turned on or lit at a certain time every night.Modern lamps may also have light-sensitive photocells to turn them on at dusk, off at dawn, or activate automatically in dark weather. In older lighting this function would have been performed with the aid of a solar dial. It is not uncommon for street lights to be on posts which have wires strung between them; such as on telephone poles or utility poles. New street lighting technologies, such as LED or induction lights, emit a white light that provides high levels of scotopic lumens allowing street lights with lower wattages and lower photopic lumens to replace existing street lights. Photovoltaic-powered LED luminaires are gaining wider acceptance.Preliminary field tests show that some LED luminaires are energy-efficient and perform well in testing environme nts. This project is a LED based Solar Lights is an automatic street lightening system using a LDR and 6V/5W solar panel. During day time, the internal rechargeable battery receives charging current from the connected solar panel. Here IC 555 is wired as a medium current inverting line driver, switched by an encapsulated light detector (LDR). When ambient light dims, the circuits drive the white LEDs. When the ambient light level restores, circuit returns to its idle state and light(s) switched off by the circuit. Block Diagram: SOLAR ENERGY SOLAR ENERGYSolar energy, radiant light and heat from the sun, has been harnessed by humans since ancient times using a range of ever-evolving technologies. Solar energy technologies include solar heating, solar photovoltaics, solar thermal electricity, solar architecture and artificial photosynthesis, which can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent energy problems the world now faces. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute solar energy. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic panels and solar thermal collectors to harness the energy.Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun, selecting materials with favorable thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that naturally circulate air. In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that â€Å"the development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global.Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be co nsidered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared†. The Earth receives 174 petawatts (PW) of incoming solar radiation (insolation) at the upper atmosphere. Approximately 30% is reflected back to space while the rest is absorbed by clouds, oceans and land masses. The spectrum of solar light at the Earth's surface is mostly spread across the visible and near-infrared ranges with a small part in the near-ultraviolet. Earth's land surface, oceans and atmosphere absorb solar radiation, and this raises their temperature. Warm air containing evaporated water from the oceans rises, causing atmospheric circulation or convection.When the air reaches a high altitude, where the temperature is low, water vapor condenses into clouds, which rain onto the Earth's surface, completing the water cycle. The latent heat of water condensation amplifies convection, producing atmospheric phenomena such as wind, cyclones and anti-cyclones. Sunlight absorbed by the o ceans and land masses keeps the surface at an average temperature of 14  °C. By photosynthesis green plants convert solar energy into chemical energy, which produces food, wood and the biomass from which fossil fuels are derived. The total solar energy absorbed by Earth's atmosphere, oceans and land masses is approximately 3,850,000 exajoules (EJ) per year. In 2002, this was more energy in one hour than the world used in one year.Photosynthesis captures approximately 3,000 EJ per year in biomass. The technical potential available from biomass is from 100–300 EJ/year. The amount of solar energy reaching the surface of the planet is so vast that in one year it is about twice as much as will ever be obtained from all of the Earth's non-renewable resources of coal, oil, natural gas, and mined uranium combined. Solar energy can be harnessed at different levels around the world, mostly depending on distance from the equator. [pic] Average insolation showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year.Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2 or 3. 5 to 7. 0 kWh/m2/day. Solar energy refers primarily to the use of solar radiation for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than geothermal and tidal, derive their energy from the sun. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight. Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun.Active solar technologies increase the supply of energy and are considered supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are g enerally considered demand side technologies. APPLICATIONS OF SOLAR TECHNOLOGY Average  insolation  showing land area (small black dots) required to replace the world primary energy supply with solar electricity. 18 TW is 568 Exajoule (EJ) per year. Insolation for most people is from 150 to 300 W/m2  or 3. 5 to 7. 0 kWh/m2/day. Solar energy refers primarily to the use of  solar radiation  for practical ends. However, all renewable energies, other than  geothermal  and  tidal, derive their energy from the sun. Solar technologies are broadly characterized as either passive or active depending on the way they capture, convert and distribute sunlight.Active solar techniques use photovoltaic panels, pumps, and fans to convert sunlight into useful outputs. Passive solar techniques include selecting materials with favorable thermal properties, designing spaces that naturally circulate air, and referencing the position of a building to the Sun. Active solar technologies incr ease the supply of energy and are considered  supply side technologies, while passive solar technologies reduce the need for alternate resources and are generally considered demand side technologies ARCHITECTURE AND URBAN PLANNING [pic] Darmstadt University of Technology  in Germany  won the 2007  Solar Decathlon  in Washington, D. C. with this  passive house designed specifically for the humid and hot subtropical climate.Sunlight has influenced building design since the beginning of architectural history. Advanced solar architecture and urban planning methods were first employed by the  Greeks  and  Chinese, who oriented their buildings toward the south to provide light and warmth. The common features of  passive solar  architecture are orientation relative to the Sun, compact proportion (a low surface area to volume ratio), selective shading (overhangs) and  thermal mass. When these features are tailored to the local climate and environment they can produce well-lit spaces that stay in a comfortable temperature range. Socrates'  Megaron House is a classic example of passive solar design.The most recent approaches to solar design use computer modeling tying together  solar lighting,  heating  and  ventilation  systems in an integrated  solar design  package. Active solar equipment such as pumps, fans and switchable windows can complement passive design and improve system performance. Urban heat islands (UHI) are metropolitan areas with higher temperatures than that of the surrounding environment. The higher temperatures are a result of increased absorption of the Solar light by urban materials such as asphalt and concrete, which have lower  albedos  and higher  heat capacities  than those in the natural environment. A straightforward method of counteracting the UHI effect is to paint buildings and roads white and plant trees.Using these methods, a hypothetical â€Å"cool communities† program in  Los Ang eles  has projected that urban temperatures could be reduced by approximately 3  Ã‚ °C at an estimated cost of US$1  billion, giving estimated total annual benefits of US$530  million from reduced air-conditioning costs and healthcare savings. [23] AGRICULTURE AND HORTICULTURE [pic] Greenhouses  like these in the Westland municipality of the  Netherlands  grow vegetables, fruits and flowers. Agriculture  and  horticulture  seek to optimize the capture of solar energy in order to optimize the productivity of plants. Techniques such as timed planting cycles, tailored row orientation, staggered heights between rows and the mixing of plant varieties can improve crop yields. [24][25]  While sunlight is generally considered a plentiful resource, the exceptions highlight the importance of solar energy to agriculture.During the short growing seasons of the  Little Ice Age, French and  English  farmers employed fruit walls to maximize the collection of solar energ y. These walls acted as thermal masses and accelerated ripening by keeping plants warm. Early fruit walls were built perpendicular to the ground and facing south, but over time, sloping walls were developed to make better use of sunlight. In 1699,  Nicolas Fatio de Duillier  even suggested using a  tracking mechanism  which could pivot to follow the Sun. [26]  Applications of solar energy in agriculture aside from growing crops include pumping water, drying crops, brooding chicks and drying chicken manure. [27][28]  More recently the technology has been embraced by vinters, who use the energy generated by solar panels to power grape presses. [29]Greenhouses  convert solar light to heat, enabling year-round production and the growth (in enclosed environments) of specialty crops and other plants not naturally suited to the local climate. Primitive greenhouses were first used during Roman times to produce  cucumbers  year-round for the Roman emperor  Tiberius. [30]à ‚  The first modern greenhouses were built in Europe in the 16th century to keep exotic plants brought back from explorations abroad. [31]  Greenhouses remain an important part of horticulture today, and plastic transparent materials have also been used to similar effect in  polytunnels  and  row covers. TRANSPORT AND RECONNAISSANCE [pic] Australia hosts the  World Solar Challengewhere solar cars like the Nuna3 race through a 3,021  km (1,877  mi) course from Darwin to Adelaide.Development of a solar powered car has been an engineering goal since the 1980s. The  World Solar Challenge  is a biannual solar-powered car race, where teams from universities and enterprises compete over 3,021 kilometres (1,877  mi) across central Australia from  Darwin  to  Adelaide. In 1987, when it was founded, the winner's average speed was 67 kilometres per hour (42  mph) and by 2007 the winner's average speed had improved to 90. 87 kilometres per hour (56. 46  mph). [32]à ‚  The  North American Solar Challenge  and the planned  South African Solar Challenge  are comparable competitions that reflect an international interest in the engineering and development of solar powered vehicles. [33][34]Some vehicles use solar panels for auxiliary power, such as for air conditioning, to keep the interior cool, thus reducing fuel consumption. [35][36] In 1975, the first practical solar boat was constructed in England. [37]  By 1995, passenger boats incorporating PV panels began appearing and are now used extensively. [38]  In 1996,  Kenichi Horie  made the first solar powered crossing of the Pacific Ocean, and the  sun21  catamaran made the first solar powered crossing of the Atlantic Ocean in the winter of 2006–2007. [39]  There are plans to circumnavigate the globe in 2010. [40] [pic] Helios UAV  in solar powered flight. In 1974, the unmanned  AstroFlight Sunrise  plane made the first solar flight.On 29 April 1979, the  Sol ar Riser  made the first flight in a solar powered, fully controlled, man carrying flying machine, reaching an altitude of 40 feet (12  m). In 1980, the  Gossamer Penguin  made the first piloted flights powered solely by photovoltaics. This was quickly followed by the  Solar Challenger  which crossed the English Channel in July 1981. In 1990  Eric Scott Raymond  in 21 hops flew from California to North Carolina using solar power. [41]  Developments then turned back to unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) with the  Pathfinder  (1997) and subsequent designs, culminating in the  Helios  which set the altitude record for a non-rocket-propelled aircraft at 29,524 metres (96,864  ft) in 2001. 42]  The  Zephyr, developed by  BAE Systems, is the latest in a line of record-breaking solar aircraft, making a 54-hour flight in 2007, and month-long flights are envisioned by 2010. [43] A  solar balloon  is a black balloon that is filled with ordinary air. As sunlig ht shines on the balloon, the air inside is heated and expands causing an upward  buoyancy  force, much like an artificially heated  hot air balloon. Some solar balloons are large enough for human flight, but usage is generally limited to the toy market as the surface-area to payload-weight ratio is relatively high. [44] DAYLIGHTING [pic] Daylighting features such as this  oculusat the top of the  Pantheon, in  Rome, Italy have been in use since antiquity.The history of lighting is dominated by the use of natural light. The Romans recognized a  right to light  as early as the  6th century  and English law echoed these judgments with the Prescription Act of 1832. [45][46]  In the 20th century artificial  lighting  became the main source of interior illumination but daylighting techniques and hybrid solar lighting solutions are ways to reduce energy consumption. Daylighting  systems collect and distribute sunlight to provide interior illumination. This pass ive technology directly offsets energy use by replacing artificial lighting, and indirectly offsets non-solar energy use by reducing the need for  air-conditioning. 47]  Although difficult to quantify, the use of  natural lighting  also offers physiological and psychological benefits compared to  artificial lighting. [47]  Daylighting design implies careful selection of window types, sizes and orientation; exterior shading devices may be considered as well. Deciduous trees at the east and west ends of buildings offer shade in the summer and do not block the sun in the winter. [48]  Individual features include sawtooth roofs,  clerestory windows, light shelves,  skylights  and  light tubes. They may be incorporated into existing structures, but are most effective when integrated into a  solar design  package that accounts for factors such as  glare, heat flux and  time-of-use.When daylighting features are properly implemented they can reduce lighting-rel ated energy requirements by 25%. [49] Hybrid solar lighting  (HSL) is an  active solar  method of providing interior illumination. HSL systems collect sunlight using focusing mirrors that  track the Sun  and use  optical fibers  to transmit it inside the building to supplement conventional lighting. In single-story applications these systems are able to transmit 50% of the direct sunlight received. [50] Solar lights that charge during the day and light up at dusk are a common sight along walkways. [51]  Solar-charged lanterns have become popular in developing countries where they provide a safer and cheaper alternative to kerosene lamps. [52]Although  daylight saving time  is promoted as a way to use sunlight to save energy, recent research reports contradictory results: several studies report savings, but just as many suggest no effect or even a net loss, particularly when  gasoline  consumption is taken into account. Electricity use is greatly affected by g eography, climate and economics, making it hard to generalize from single studies. [53] SOLAR THERMAL Solar thermal technologies can be used for water heating, space heating, space cooling and process heat generation. [54] WATER HEATING [pic] Solar water heaters facing the  Sun  to maximize gain. Solar hot water systems use sunlight to heat water.In low geographical latitudes (below 40  degrees) from 60 to 70% of the domestic hot water use with temperatures up to 60  Ã‚ °C can be provided by solar heating systems. [55]  The most common types of solar water heaters are evacuated tube collectors (44%) and glazed flat plate collectors (34%) generally used for domestic hot water; and unglazed plastic collectors (21%) used mainly to heat swimming pools. [56] As of 2007, the total installed capacity of solar hot water systems is approximately 154  GW. [57]  China is the world leader in their deployment with 70  GW installed as of 2006 and a long term goal of 210  GW by 2 020. [58]  Israel  and  Cyprus  are the per capita leaders in the use of solar hot water systems with over 90% of homes using them. 59]  In the United States, Canada and Australia heating swimming pools is the dominant application of solar hot water with an installed capacity of 18  GW as of 2005. [18] HEATING, COOLING AND VENTILATION [pic] Solar House #1 of  Massachusetts Institute of Technology  in the United States, built in 1939, used  Seasonal thermal energy storage (STES)  for year-round heating. In the United States,  heating, ventilation and air conditioning  (HVAC) systems account for 30% (4. 65  EJ) of the energy used in commercial buildings and nearly 50% (10. 1  EJ) of the energy used in residential buildings. [49][60]  Solar heating, cooling and ventilation technologies can be used to offset a portion of this energy.Thermal mass is any material that can be used to store heat—heat from the Sun in the case of solar energy. Common therm al mass materials include stone, cement and water. Historically they have been used in arid climates or warm temperate regions to keep buildings cool by absorbing solar energy during the day and radiating stored heat to the cooler atmosphere at night. However they can be used in cold temperate areas to maintain warmth as well. The size and placement of thermal mass depend on several factors such as climate, daylighting and shading conditions. When properly incorporated, thermal mass maintains space temperatures in a comfortable range and reduces the need for auxiliary heating and cooling equipment. [61]A solar chimney (or thermal chimney, in this context) is a passive solar ventilation system composed of a vertical shaft connecting the interior and exterior of a building. As the chimney warms, the air inside is heated causing an  updraft  that pulls air through the building. Performance can be improved by using glazing and thermal mass materials[62]  in a way that mimics green houses. Deciduous  trees and plants have been promoted as a means of controlling solar heating and cooling. When planted on the southern side of a building, their leaves provide shade during the summer, while the bare limbs allow light to pass during the winter. [63]  Since bare, leafless trees shade 1/3 to 1/2 of incident solar radiation, there is a balance between the benefits of summer shading and the corresponding loss of winter heating. 64]  In climates with significant heating loads, deciduous trees should not be planted on the southern side of a building because they will interfere with winter solar availability. They can, however, be used on the east and west sides to provide a degree of summer shading without appreciably affecting winter solar gain. [65] WATER TREATMENT [pic] Solar water disinfection  in  Indonesia [pic] Small scale solar powered sewerage treatment plant. Solar distillation can be used to make  saline  or  brackish water  potable. The firs t recorded instance of this was by 16th century Arab alchemists. [66]  A large-scale solar distillation project was first constructed in 1872 in the  Chilean  mining town of Las Salinas. 67]  The plant, which had solar collection area of 4,700  m2, could produce up to 22,700  L  per day and operated for 40  years. [67]  Individual  still  designs include single-slope, double-slope (or greenhouse type), vertical, conical, inverted absorber, multi-wick, and multiple effect. [66]  These stills can operate in passive, active, or hybrid modes. Double-slope stills are the most economical for decentralized domestic purposes, while active multiple effect units are more suitable for large-scale applications. [66] Solar water  disinfection  (SODIS) involves exposing water-filled plastic  polyethylene terephthalate  (PET) bottles to sunlight for several hours. 68]  Exposure times vary depending on weather and climate from a minimum of six hours to two days dur ing fully overcast conditions. [69]  It is recommended by theWorld Health Organization  as a viable method for household water treatment and safe storage. [70]  Over two million people in developing countries use this method for their daily drinking water. [69] Solar energy may be used in a water stabilisation pond to treat  waste water  without chemicals or electricity. A further environmental advantage is thatalgae  grow in such ponds and consume  carbon dioxide  in photosynthesis, although algae may produce toxic chemicals that make the water unusable. [71][72] COOKING [pic]The Solar Bowl in  Auroville,  India, concentrates sunlight on a movable receiver to produce  steam  for  cooking. Solar cookers use sunlight for cooking, drying and  pasteurization. They can be grouped into three broad categories: box cookers, panel cookers and reflector cookers. [73]  The simplest solar cooker is the box cooker first built by  Horace de Saussure  in 1767. [7 4]  A basic box cooker consists of an insulated container with a transparent lid. It can be used effectively with partially overcast skies and will typically reach temperatures of 90–150  Ã‚ °C. [75]Panel cookers use a reflective panel to direct sunlight onto an insulated container and reach temperatures comparable to box cookers.Reflector cookers use various concentrating geometries (dish, trough, Fresnel mirrors) to focus light on a cooking container. These cookers reach temperatures of 315  Ã‚ °C and above but require direct light to function properly and must be repositioned to track the Sun. [76] The  solar bowl  is a concentrating technology employed by the Solar Kitchen at  Auroville, in  Tamil Nadu,  India, where a stationary spherical reflector focuses light along a line perpendicular to the sphere's interior surface, and a computer control system moves the receiver to intersect this line. Steam is produced in the receiver at temperatures reaching 150   Ã‚ °C and then used for process heat in the kitchen. [77]A reflector developed by  Wolfgang Scheffler  in 1986 is used in many solar kitchens. Scheffler reflectors are flexible parabolic dishes that combine aspects of trough and power tower concentrators. Polar tracking  is used to follow the Sun's daily course and the curvature of the reflector is adjusted for seasonal variations in the incident angle of sunlight. These reflectors can reach temperatures of 450–650  Ã‚ °C and have a fixed focal point, which simplifies cooking. [78]  The world's largest Scheffler reflector system in Abu Road,  Rajasthan, India is capable of cooking up to 35,000 meals a day. [79]As of 2008, over 2,000 large Scheffler cookers had been built worldwide. [80] PROCESS HEATSolar concentrating technologies such as parabolic dish, trough and Scheffler reflectors can provide process heat for commercial and industrial applications. The first commercial system was the  Solar Total Energy Project  (STEP) in Shenandoah, Georgia, USA where a field of 114 parabolic dishes provided 50% of the process heating, air conditioning and electrical requirements for a clothing factory. This grid-connected cogeneration system provided 400  kW of electricity plus thermal energy in the form of 401  kW steam and 468  kW chilled water, and had a one hour peak load thermal storage. [81] Evaporation ponds are shallow pools that concentrate dissolved solids through  evaporation. The use of evaporation ponds to obtain salt from sea water is one of the oldest applications of solar energy.Modern uses include concentrating brine solutions used in leach mining and removing dissolved solids from waste streams. [82] Clothes lines,  clotheshorses, and clothes racks dry clothes through evaporation by wind and sunlight without consuming electricity or gas. In some states of the United States legislation protects the â€Å"right to dry† clothes. [83] Unglazed transpired collecto rs (UTC) are perforated sun-facing walls used for preheating ventilation air. UTCs can raise the incoming air temperature up to 22  Ã‚ °C and deliver outlet temperatures of 45–60  Ã‚ °C. [84]  The short payback period of transpired collectors (3 to 12  years) makes them a more cost-effective alternative than glazed collection systems. 84]  As of 2003, over 80 systems with a combined collector area of 35,000  m2  had been installed worldwide, including an 860  m2  collector in  Costa Rica  used for drying coffee beans and a 1,300  m2  collector in  Coimbatore, India used for drying marigolds. [28] ELECTRICITY PRODUCTION [pic] The  PS10  concentrates sunlight from a field of heliostats on a central tower. Solar power is the conversion of sunlight into  electricity, either directly using  photovoltaics  (PV), or indirectly using  concentrated solar power  (CSP). CSP systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. PV converts light into electric current using the  photoelectric effect. Commercial CSP plants were first developed in the 1980s. Since 1985 the eventually 354 MW  SEGS  CSP installation, in the Mojave Desert of California, is the largest solar power plant in the world.Other large CSP plants include the 150 MW  Solnova Solar Power Station  and the 100 MWAndasol solar power station, both in Spain. The 250 MW  Agua Caliente Solar Project, in the United States, and the 214 MW  Charanka Solar Park  inIndia, are the  world’s largest  photovoltaic plants. Solar projects exceeding 1 GW are being developed, but most of the deployed photovoltaics are in small rooftop arrays of less than 5 kW, which are grid connected using net metering and/or a feed-in tariff. [85] Concentrated solar power Concentrating Solar Power (CSP) systems use lenses or mirrors and tracking systems to focus a large area of sunlight into a small beam. The concen trated heat is then used as a heat source for a conventional power plant.A wide range of concentrating technologies exists; the most developed are the parabolic trough, the concentrating linear fresnel reflector, the Stirling dish and the solar power tower. Various techniques are used to track the Sun and focus light. In all of these systems a  working fluid  is heated by the concentrated sunlight, and is then used for power generation or energy storage. [86] PHOTOVOLTAICS PHOTOVOLTAICS A solar cell, or photovoltaic cell (PV), is a device that converts light into electric current using the photoelectric effect. The first solar cell was constructed by Charles Fritts in the 1880s. In 1931 a German engineer, Dr Bruno Lange, developed a photo cell using silver selenite in place of copper oxide.Although the prototype selenium cells converted less than 1% of incident light into electricity, both Ernst Werner von Siemens and James Clerk Maxwell recognized the importance of this discove ry. Following the work of Russell Ohl in the 1940s, researchers Gerald Pearson, Calvin Fuller and Daryl Chapin created the silicon solar cell in 1954. These early solar cells cost 286 USD/watt and reached efficiencies of 4. 5–6%. By 2012 available efficiencies exceed 20% and the maximum efficiency of research photovoltaics is over 40%. OTHERS Besides concentrated solar power and photovoltaics, there are some other techniques used to generated electricity using solar power. These include: †¢Dye-sensitized_solar_cells, Luminescent solar concentrators (a type of concentrated photovoltaics or CPV technology), †¢Biohybrid solar cells, †¢Photon Enhanced Thermionic Emission systems. Development, deployment and economics Beginning with the surge in coal use which accompanied the Industrial Revolution, energy consumption has steadily transitioned from wood and biomass to fossil fuels. The early development of solar technologies starting in the 1860s was driven by an exp ectation that coal would soon become scarce. However development of solar technologies stagnated in the early 20th century in the face of the increasing availability, economy, and utility of coal and petroleum. [109]The 1973 oil embargo and 1979 energy crisis caused a reorganization of energy policies around the world and brought renewed attention to developing solar technologies. Deployment strategies focused on incentive programs such as the Federal Photovoltaic Utilization Program in the US and the Sunshine Program in Japan. Other efforts included the formation of research facilities in the US (SERI, now NREL), Japan (NEDO), and Germany (Fraunhofer Institute for Solar Energy Systems ISE). Commercial solar water heaters began appearing in the United States in the 1890s. These systems saw increasing use until the 1920s but were gradually replaced by cheaper and more reliable heating fuels.As with photovoltaics, solar water heating attracted renewed attention as a result of the oil crises in the 1970s but interest subsided in the 1980s due to falling petroleum prices. Development in the solar water heating sector progressed steadily throughout the 1990s and growth rates have averaged 20% per year since 1999. [57] Although generally underestimated, solar water heating and cooling is by far the most widely deployed solar technology with an estimated capacity of 154 GW as of 2007. The International Energy Agency has said that solar energy can make considerable contributions to solving some of the most urgent problems the world now faces: The development of affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have huge longer-term benefits.It will increase countries’ energy security through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the costs of mitigating climate change, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the incentives for early deployment should be considered learning investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared. In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that solar energy technologies such as photovoltaic panels, solar water heaters and power stations built with mirrors could provide a third of the world’s energy by 2060 if politicians commit to limiting climate change. The energy from the sun could play a key role in de-carbonizing the global economy alongside improvements in energy efficiency and imposing costs on greenhouse gas emitters. The strength of solar is the incredible variety and flexibility of applications, from small scale to big scale†. We have proved †¦ that after our stores of oil and coal are exhausted the human race can receive unlimited power from the rays of the sun. —Frank Shuman, New York Times, July 2, 1916 SOLAR CELL SOLAR CELL A solar cell made from amonocrystalline silicon wafer Sola r cells can be used devices such as this portable monocrystalline solar charger. A solar cell (also called a photovoltaic cell) is an electrical device that converts the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect. It is a form of photoelectric cell (in that its electrical characteristics—e. g. urrent, voltage, or resistance—vary when light is incident upon it) which, when exposed to light, can generate and support an electric current without being attached to any external voltage source. The term â€Å"photovoltaic† comes from the Greek (phos) meaning â€Å"light†, and from â€Å"Volt†, the unit of electro-motive force, the volt, which in turn comes from the last name of the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta, inventor of the battery (electrochemical cell). The term â€Å"photo-voltaic† has been in use in English since 1849. Photovoltaics is the field of technology and research related to the practical application of photovoltaic cells in producing electricity from light, though it is often used specifically to refer to the generation of electricity from sunlight.Cells can be described as photovoltaic even when the light source is not necessarily sunlight (lamplight, artificial light, etc. ). In such cases the cell is sometimes used as a photodetector (for example infrared detectors), detecting light or other electromagnetic radiationnear the visible range, or measuring light intensity. The operation of a photovoltaic (PV) cell requires 3 basic attributes: 1. The absorption of light, generating either electron-hole pairs or excitons. 2. The separation of charge carriers of opposite types. 3. The separate extraction of those carriers to an external circuit. In contrast, a solar thermal collector collects heat by absorbing sunlight, for the purpose of either direct heating or indirect electrical power generation. Photoelectrolytic cell† (photoelectrochemical cell), on the other hand, refe rs either a type of photovoltaic cell (like that developed by A. E. Becquerel and modern dye-sensitized solar cells) or a device that splits water directly into hydrogen and oxygen using only solar illumination. FURTHER IMPROVEMENTS In the time since Berman's work, improvements have brought production costs down under $1 a watt, with wholesale costs well under $2. â€Å"Balance of system† costs are now more than the panels themselves. Large commercial arrays can be built at below $3. 40 a watt,[12][13]  fully commissioned. As the semiconductor industry moved to ever-larger boules, older equipment became available at fire-sale prices.Cells have grown in size as older equipment became available on the surplus market; ARCO Solar's original panels used cells with 2 to 4  inch (51 to 100  mm) diameter. Panels in the 1990s and early 2000s generally used 5  inch (125  mm) wafers, and since 2008 almost all new panels use 6  inch (150  mm) cells. This material has less e fficiency, but is less expensive to produce in bulk. The widespread introduction of  flat screen televisions  in the late 1990s and early 2000s led to the wide availability of large sheets of high-quality glass, used on the front of the panels. In terms of the cells themselves, there has been only one major change. During the 1990s, polysilicon cells became increasingly popular.These cells offer less efficiency than their monosilicon counterparts, but they are grown in large vats that greatly reduce the cost of production. By the mid-2000s, poly was dominant in the low-cost panel market, but more recently a variety of factors has pushed the higher performance mono back into widespread use. CURRENT EVENTS Other technologies have tried to enter the market. First Solar  was briefly the largest panel manufacturer in 2009, in terms of yearly power produced, using a thin-film cell sandwiched between two layers of glass. Since then silicon panels reasserted their dominant position bo th in terms of lower prices and the rapid rise of Chinese manufacturing, resulting in the top producers being Chinese.By late 2011, efficient production in China, coupled with a drop in European demand due to budgetary turmoil had dropped prices for crystalline solar-based modules further, to about $1. 09[13]  per watt in October 2011, down sharply from the price per watt in 2010. A more modern process, mono-like-multi, aims to offer the performance of mono at the cost of poly, and is in the process of being introduced in 2012[citation needed]. APPLICATIONS [pic] Polycrystalline  photovoltaic cells laminated to backing material in a module [pic] [pic] Polycrystalline photovoltaic cells Solar cells are often electrically connected and encapsulated as a  module. Photovoltaic modules often have a sheet of glass on the front (sun up) side, allowing light to pass while protecting the emiconductor  wafers  from abrasion and impact due to wind-driven debris,  rain,  hail, etc . Solar cells are also usually connected in  series  in modules, creating an additive  voltage. Connecting cells in parallel will yield a higher current; however, very significant problems exist with parallel connections. For example, shadow effects can shut down the weaker (less illuminated) parallel string (a number of series connected cells) causing substantial power loss and even damaging the weaker string because of the excessive  reverse bias  applied to the shadowed cells by their illuminated partners. Strings of series cells are usually handled independently and not connected in parallel, special paralleling circuits are the exceptions.Although modules can be interconnected to create an  array  with the desired peak DC voltage and loading current capacity, using independent MPPTs (maximum power point trackers) provides a better solution. In the absence of paralleling circuits, shunt diodes can be used to reduce the power loss due to shadowing in arrays with ser ies/parallel connected cells. To make practical use of the solar-generated energy, the electricity is most often fed into the electricity grid using inverters (grid-connected  photovoltaic systems); in stand-alone systems, batteries are used to store the energy that is not needed immediately. Solar panels can be used to power or recharge portable devices. THEORYThe solar cell works in three steps: 1. Photons  in  sunlight  hit the solar panel and are absorbed by semiconducting materials, such as silicon. 2. Electrons  (negatively charged) are knocked loose from their atoms, causing an electric potential difference. Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and this electricity is captured. Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only allowed to move in a single direction. 3. An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of  direct current  (DC) electricity. EFFICIENCY Solar panels on the Internatio nal Space Station absorb light from both sides.These Bifacial cells are more efficient and operate at lower temperature than single sided equivalents. The efficiency of a solar cell may be broken down into reflectance efficiency, thermodynamic efficiency, charge carrier separation efficiency and conductive efficiency. The overall efficiency is the product of each of these individual efficiencies. A solar cell usually has a voltage dependent efficiency curve, temperature coefficients, and shadow angles. Due to the difficulty in measuring these parameters directly, other parameters are measured instead: thermodynamic efficiency, quantum efficiency,integrated quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor.Reflectance losses are a portion of the quantum efficiency under â€Å"external quantum efficiency†. Recombination losses make up a portion of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio, and fill factor. Resistive losses are predominantly categorized under fill factor, but also make up minor portions of the quantum efficiency, VOC ratio. The fill factor is defined as the ratio of the actual maximum obtainable power to the product of the open circuit voltage and short circuit current. This is a key parameter in evaluating the performance of solar cells. Typical commercial solar cells have a fill factor ; 0. 70. Grade B cells have a fill factor usually between 0. 4 to 0. 7. 14] Cells with a high fill factor have a low equivalent series resistance and a high equivalent shunt resistance, so less of the current produced by the cell is dissipated in internal losses. Single p–n junction crystalline silicon devices are now approaching the theoretical limiting power efficiency of 33. 7%, noted as the Shockley–Queisser limit in 1961. In the extreme, with an infinite number of layers, the corresponding limit is 86% using concentrated sunlight. [pic] Reported timeline of solar cell energy conversion efficiencies (from National Renewable Energy Laboratory (USA)) MATERIALS [pic] [pic] The  Shockley-Queisser limit  for the theoretical maximum efficiency of a solar cell. Semiconductors with  band gapbetween 1 and 1. eV, or near-infrared light, have the greatest potential to form an efficient cell. (The efficiency â€Å"limit† shown here can be exceeded by  multijunction solar cells. ) Various materials display varying efficiencies and have varying costs. Materials for efficient solar cells must have characteristics matched to the spectrum of available light. Some cells are designed to efficiently convert wavelengths of solar light that reach the Earth surface. However, some solar cells are optimized for light absorption beyond Earth's atmosphere as well. Light absorbing materials can often be used in  multiple physical configurations  to take advantage of different light absorption and charge separation mechanisms.Materials presently used for photovoltaic solar cells include  monocrystalline silicon,  polycrystalline sil icon,  amorphous silicon,  cadmium telluride, andcopper indium selenide/sulfide. [25][26] Many currently available solar cells are made from bulk materials that are cut into  wafers  between 180 to 240  micrometers thick that are then processed like other semiconductors. Other materials are made as  thin-films  layers, organic  dyes, and organic  polymers  that are deposited on  supporting substrates. A third group are made from  nanocrystals  and used as  quantum dots  (electron-confined  nanoparticles). Silicon remains the only material that is well-researched in both  bulkand  thin-film  forms. CRYSTALLINE SILICON [pic]Basic structure of a silicon based solar cell and its working mechanism. By far, the most prevalent bulk material for solar cells is crystalline silicon (abbreviated as a group as c-Si), also known as â€Å"solar grade silicon†. Bulk silicon is separated into multiple categories according to crystallinity and crystal siz e in the resulting ingot, ribbon, orwafer. 1. monocrystalline silicon (c-Si): often made using the Czochralski process. Single-crystal wafer cells tend to be expensive, and because they are cut from cylindrical ingots, do not completely cover a square solar cell module without a substantial waste of refined silicon. Hence most c-Si panels have uncovered gaps at the four corners of the cells. 2. olycrystalline silicon, or multicrystalline silicon, (poly-Si or mc-Si): made from cast square ingots — large blocks of molten silicon carefully cooled and solidified. Poly-Si cells are less expensive to produce than single crystal silicon cells, but are less efficient. United States Department of Energy data show that there were a higher number of polycrystalline sales than monocrystalline silicon sales. 3. ribbon silicon is a type of polycrystalline silicon: it is formed by drawing flat thin films from molten silicon and results in a polycrystalline structure. These cells have lower efficiencies than poly-Si, but save on production costs due to a great reduction in silicon waste, as this approach does not require sawing from ingots. 4. ono-like-multi silicon: Developed in the 2000s and introduced commercially around 2009, mono-like-multi, or cast-mono, uses existing polycrystalline casting chambers with small â€Å"seeds† of mono material. The result is a bulk mono-like material with poly around the outsides. When sawn apart for processing, the inner sections are high-efficiency mono-like cells (but square instead of â€Å"clipped†), while the outer edges are sold off as conventional poly. The result is line that produces mono-like cells at poly-like prices. Analysts have predicted that prices of polycrystalline silicon will drop as companies build additional polysilicon capacity quicker than the industry's projected demand. On the other hand, the cost of producing upgraded metallurgical-grade silicon, also known as UMG Si, can potentially be one- sixth that of makingpolysilicon.Manufacturers of wafer-based cells have responded to high silicon prices in 2004–2008 prices with rapid reductions in silicon consumption. According to Jef Poortmans, director of IMEC's organic and solar department, current cells use between eight and nine grams of silicon per watt of power generation, with wafer thicknesses in the neighborhood of 0. 200 mm. At 2008 spring's IEEEPhotovoltaic Specialists' Conference (PVS'08), John Wohlgemuth, staff scientist at BP Solar, reported that his company has qualified modules based on 0. 180 mm thick wafers and is testing processes for 0. 16 mm wafers cut with 0. 1 mm wire. IMEC's road map, presented at the organization's recent annual research review meeting, envisions use of 0. 08 mm wafers by 2015. Gallium arsenide multijunction:High-efficiency multijunction cells were originally developed for special applications such as satellites and space exploration, but at present, their use in terrestrial conc entrators might be the lowest cost alternative in terms of $/kWh and $/W. [35] These multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors: GaAs, Ge, and GaInP2. [36] Each type of semiconductor will have a characteristic band gap energy which, loosely speaking, causes it to absorb light most efficiently at a certain color, or more precisely, to absorb electromagnetic radiation over a portion of the spectrum.Combinations of semiconductors are carefully chosen to absorb nearly the entire solar spectrum, thus generating electricity from as much of the solar energy as possible. GaAs based multijunction devices are the most efficient solar cells to date. In October 15, 2012, triple junction metamorphic cell reached a record high of 44%. [37] Tandem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP), gallium arsenide GaAs, and germanium Ge p–n junctions, are seeing demand rapidly rise. Between December 2006 and December 2007, the cost of 4N gallium metal rose from about $350 per kg to $680 per kg. Additionally, germanium metal prices have risen substantially to $1000–1200 per kg this year.Those materials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga), arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium, pyrolitic boron nitride (pBN) crucibles for growing crystals, and boron oxide, these products are critical to the entire substrate manufacturing industry. Triple-junction GaAs solar cells were also being used as the power source of the Dutch four-time World Solar Challenge winners Nuna in 2003, 2005 and 2007, and also by the Dutch solar carsSolutra (2005), Twente One (2007) and 21Revolution (2009). The Dutch Radboud University Nijmegen set the record for thin film solar cell efficiency using a single junction GaAs to 25. 8% in August 2008 using only 4  µm thick GaAs layer which can be transferred from a wafer base to glass or pl astic film. THIN FILMS [pic]Market share of the different PV technologies  In 2010 the market share of thin film declined by 30% as thin film technology was displaced by more efficient crystalline silicon solar panels (the light and dark blue bars). Thin-film technologies reduce the amount of material required in creating the active material of solar cell. Most thin film solar cells are sandwiched between two panes of glass to make a module. Since silicon solar panels only use one pane of glass, thin film panels are approximately twice as heavy as crystalline silicon panels. The majority of film panels have significantly lower conversion efficiencies, lagging silicon by two to three percentage points. 31]  Thin-film solar technologies have enjoyed large investment due to the success of First Solar and the largely unfulfilled promise of lower cost and flexibility compared to wafer silicon cells, but they have not become mainstream solar products due to their lower efficiency and corresponding larger area consumption per watt production. Cadmium telluride  (CdTe),  copper indium gallium selenide  (CIGS) and  amorphous silicon  (A-Si) are three thin-film technologies often used as outdoor photovoltaic solar power production. CdTe technology is most cost competitive among them. [32]  CdTe technology costs about 30% less than CIGS technology and 40% less than A-Si technology in 2011. CADMIUM TELLURIDE SOLAR CELLA cadmium telluride solar cell uses a cadmium telluride (CdTe) thin film, a  semiconductor  layer to absorb and convert sunlight into electricity. Solarbuzzhas reported that the lowest quoted thin-film module price stands at US$0. 84 per  watt-peak, with the lowest crystalline silicon (c-Si) module at $1. 06 per watt-peak. [33] The  cadmium  present in the cells would be toxic if released. However, release is impossible during normal operation of the cells and is unlikely during ? res in residential roofs. [34]  A square meter of CdTe contains approximately the same amount of Cd as a single C cell  Nickel-cadmium battery, in a more stable and less soluble form. [34]COPPER INDIUM GALLIUM SELENIDE Copper indium gallium selenide (CIGS) is a  direct band gap  material. It has the highest efficiency (~20%) among thin film materials (see  CIGS solar cell). Traditional methods of fabrication involve vacuum processes including co-evaporation and sputtering. Recent developments at  IBM  and  Nanosolar  attempt to lower the cost by using non-vacuum solution processes. GALLIUM ARSENIDE MULTIJUNCTION High-efficiency multijunction cells were originally developed for special applications such as  satellites  and  space exploration, but at present, their use in terrestrial concentrators might be the lowest cost alternative in terms of $/kWh and $/W. 35]  These multijunction cells consist of multiple thin films produced using  metalorganic vapour phase epitaxy. A triple-junction cell, for example, may consist of the semiconductors:  GaAs,  Ge, and  GaInP2. [36]  Each type of semiconductor will have a characteristic  band gap  energy which, loosely speaking, causes it to absorb light most efficiently at a certain color, or more precisely, to absorb  electromagnetic radiation  over a portion of the spectrum. Combinations of semiconductors are carefully chosen to absorb nearly all of the solar spectrum, thus generating electricity from as much of the solar energy as possible. GaAs based multijunction devices are the most efficient solar cells to date.In October 15, 2012, triple junction metamorphic cell reached a record high of 44%. [37] Tandem solar cells based on monolithic, series connected, gallium indium phosphide (GaInP), gallium arsenide GaAs, and germanium Ge p–n junctions, are seeing demand rapidly rise. Between December 2006 and December 2007, the cost of 4N gallium metal rose from about $350 per kg to $680 per kg. Additionally, germanium metal p rices have risen substantially to $1000–1200 per kg this year. Those materials include gallium (4N, 6N and 7N Ga), arsenic (4N, 6N and 7N) and germanium, pyrolitic boron nitride (pBN) crucibles for growing crystals, and boron oxide, these products are critical to the entire substrate manufacturing industry.Triple-junction GaAs solar cells were also being used as the power source of the Dutch four-time  World Solar Challenge  winners  Nuna  in 2003, 2005 and 2007, and also by the Dutch solar carsSolutra (2005),  Twente One (2007)  and 21Revolution (2009). The Dutch  Radboud University Nijmegen  set the record for thin film solar cell efficiency using a single junction GaAs to 25. 8% in August 2008 using only 4  Ã‚ µm thick GaAs layer which can be transferred from a wafer base to glass or plastic film. Light-absorbing dyes (DSSC) Dye-sensitized solar cells  (DSSCs) are made of low-cost materials and do not need elaborate equipment to manufacture, so they can be made in a  DIY  fashion, possibly allowing players to produce more of this type of solar cell than others. In bulk it should be significantly less expensive than older  solid-state  cell designs.DSSC's can be engineered into flexible sheets, and although its  conversion efficiency  is less than the best  thin film cells, its  price/performance ratio  should be high enough to allow them to compete with  fossil fuel electrical generation. Typically a  ruthenium  metalorganic  dye  (Ru-centered) is used as a  monolayer  of light-absorbing material. The dye-sensitized solar cell depends on a  mesoporous  layer of  nanoparticulate  titanium dioxide  to greatly amplify the surface area (200–300 m2/g TiO2, as compared to approximately 10 m2/g of flat single crystal). The photogenerated electrons from the  light absorbing dye  are passed on to the  n-type  TiO2, and the holes are absorbed by an  electrolyte  on the other side of the dye.The circuit is completed by a redox couple in the electrolyte, which can be liquid or solid. This type of cell allows a more flexible use of materials, and is typically manufactured by  screen printing  or use of  Ultrasonic Nozzles, with the potential for lower processing costs than those used for  bulk  solar cells. However, the dyes in these cells also suffer from  degradation  under heat and  UV  light, and the cell casing is difficult to  seal  due to the solvents used in assembly. In spite of the above, this is a popular emerging technology with some commercial impact forecast within this decade. The first commercial shipment of DSSC solar modules occurred in July 2009 from G24i Innovations. [38] Quantum Dot Solar Cells (QDSCs)Quantum dot solar cells  (QDSCs) are based on the Gratzel cell, or  dye-sensitized solar cell, architecture but employ low  band gap  semiconductor  nanoparticles, fabricated with such small crystallite sizes th at they form  quantum dots  (such as  CdS,  CdSe,  Sb2S3,  PbS, etc. ), instead of organic or organometallic dyes as light absorbers. Quantum dots (QDs) have attracted much interest because of their unique properties. Their size quantization allows for the  band gap  to be tuned by simply changing particle size. They also have high  extinction coefficients, and have shown the possibility of  multiple exciton generation. [39] In a QDSC, a  mesoporous  layer of  titanium dioxide  nanoparticles forms the backbone of the cell, much like in a DSSC.This TiO2  layer can then be made photoactive by coating with semiconductor quantum dots using  chemical bath deposition,  electrophoretic deposition, or successive ionic layer adsorption and reaction. The electrical circuit is then completed through the use of a liquid or solid  redox couple. During the last 3–4 years, the efficiency of QDSCs has increased rapidly[40]  with efficiencies over 5% show n for both liquid-junction[41]  and solid state cells. [42]  In an effort to decrease production costs of these devices, the  Prashant Kamat  research group[43]  recently demonstrated a solar paint made with TiO2  and CdSe that can be applied using a one-step method to any conductive surface and have shown efficiencies over 1%. [44] Organic/polymer solar cellsOrganic solar cells  are a relatively novel technology, yet hold the promise of a substantial price reduction (over thin-film silicon) and a faster return on investment. These cells can be processed from solution, hence the possibility of a simple roll-to-roll printing process, leading to inexpensive, large scale production. Organic solar cells and  polymer solar cells  are built from thin films (typically 100  nm) of  organic semiconductors  including polymers, such as  polyphenylene vinylene  and small-molecule compounds like copper phthalocyanine (a blue or green organic pigment) and  carbon ful lerenes  and fullerene derivatives such as  PCBM. Energy conversion efficiencies achieved to date using conductive polymers are low compared to inorganic materials.However, it has improved quickly in the last few years and the highest  NREL  (National Renewable Energy Laboratory) certified efficiency has reached 8. 3% for the  Konarka  Power Plastic. [45]  In addition, these cells could be beneficial for some applications where mechanical flexibility and disposability are important. These devices differ from inorganic semiconductor solar cells in that they do not rely on the large built-in electric field of a PN junction to separate the electrons and holes created when photons are absorbed. The active region of an organic device consists of two materials, one which acts as an electron donor and the other as an acceptor.When a photon is converted into an electron hole pair, typically in the donor material, the charges tend to remain bound in the form of an  exciton, a nd are separated when the exciton diffuses to the donor-acceptor interface. The short exciton diffusion lengths of most polymer systems tend to limit the efficiency of such devices. Nanostructured interfaces, sometimes in the form of bulk heterojunctions, can improve performance. [46] In 2011, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and Michigan State University developed the first highly efficient transparent solar cells that had a power efficiency close to 2% with a transparency to the human eye greater than 65%, achieved by selectively absorbing the ultraviolet and near-infrared parts of the spectrum with small-molecule compounds. 47]  [48]Researchers at UCLA more recently developed an analogous polymer solar cell, following the same approach, that is 70% transparent and has a 4% power conversion efficiency. [49]  The efficiency limits of both opaque and transparent organic solar cells were recently outlined. [50]  [51]  These lightweight, flexible cells can be produced in bulk at a low cost, and could be used to create power generating windows. Silicon thin films Silicon thin-film cells  are mainly deposited by  chemical vapor deposition  (typically plasma-enhanced, PE-CVD) from  silane  gas and  hydrogen  gas. Depending on the deposition parameters, this can yield:[52] 1. Amorphous silicon  (a-Si or a-Si:H) 2. Protocrystalline  silicon or 3. Nanocrystalline silicon  (nc-Si or nc-Si:H), also called microcrystalline silicon.It has been found that protocrystalline silicon with a low volume fraction of nanocrystalline silicon is optimal for high open circuit voltage. [53]  These types of silicon present dangling and twisted bonds, which results in deep defects (energy levels in the bandgap) as well as deformation of the valence and conduction bands (band tails). The solar cells made from these materials tend to have lower  energy conversion efficiency  than  bulk  silicon, but are also less expensive to p roduce. The  quantum efficiency  of thin film solar cells is also lower due to reduced number of collected charge carriers per incident photon. An amorphous silicon (a-Si) solar cell is made of amorphous or microcrystalline silicon and its basic electronic structure is the  p-i-n  junction. -Si is attractive as a solar cell material because it is abundant and non-toxic (unlike its CdTe counterpart) and requires a low processing temperature, enabling production of devices to occur on flexible and low-cost substrates. As the amorphous structure has a higher absorption rate of light than crystalline cells, the complete light spectrum can be absorbed with a very thin layer of photo-electrically active material. A film only 1 micron thick can absorb 90% of the usable solar energy. [54]  This reduced material requirement along with current technologies being capable of large-area deposition of a-Si, the scalability of this type of cell is high.However, because it is amorphous, i t has high inherent disorder and dangling bonds, making it a bad conductor for charge carriers. These dangling bonds act as recombination centers that severely reduce the carrier lifetime and pin the Fermi energy level so that doping the material to n- or p- type is not possible. Amorphous Silicon also suffers from the Staebler-Wronski effect, which results in the efficiency of devices utilizing amorphous silicon dropping as the cell is exposed to light. The production of a-Si thin film solar cells uses glass as a substrate and deposits a very thin layer of silicon by  plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition  (PECVD).A-Si manufacturers are working towards lower costs per watt and higher conversion efficiency with continuous research and development on  Multijunction solar cells  for solar panels. Anwell Technologies Limited  recently announced its target for mul